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Muslimani u Mijanmaru zabrinuti za budućnost (Svibanj 2024)
Unatoč formiranju 2016. godine nove demokratski izabrane vlade u Mijanmaru (Burmi) na čelu s laureatom Nobelove nagrade za mir Demokratijom Aung San Suu Kyi, situacija je ostala teška za progonjenu muslimansku manjinu u zemlji poznatu kao Rohingja. Kao pokazatelj svoje opredjeljenosti za pronalaženje rješenja za pitanja, vlada je u kolovozu 2016. imenovala bivšeg generalnog tajnika UN-a Kofi Annana na čelu Savjetodavnog povjerenstva za provođenje procjena i pružanja preporuka.
Tko su Rohingja?
Izraz Rohingya uobičajeno se koristio, posebno u međunarodnim medijima, za označavanje zajednice muslimana koja je uglavnom koncentrirana u dva sjeverna grada mjanmarske države Rakhine (Arakan), iako ih se također može naći u drugim dijelovima države i zemlju kao i u izbjegličkim kampovima u Bangladešu. Procijenjeno je da Rohingya čini otprilike jednu trećinu stanovništva države Rakhine, a budhisti Rakhine čine značajan udio od preostalih dvije trećine.
Upotreba izraza Rohingya bila je vrlo sporna u Mjanmaru. Politički vođe Rohingye tvrdili su da je njihova etnička, kulturološka i jezična zajednica koja prati svoje rodove još od kraja 7. stoljeća. Međutim, šire budističko stanovništvo općenito je odbacilo terminologiju Rohingye, nazivajući ih umjesto Bengalom, i smatralo je da se zajednica uglavnom sastoji od ilegalnih imigranata iz današnjeg Bangladeša. Tijekom popisa stanovništva 2014. godine - prvog koji je proveden nakon 30 godina - vlada u Mjanmaru donijela je jedanaestodnevnu odluku da ne nabraja one koji se žele identificirati kao Rohingya, a brojat će samo one koji su prihvatili bengalsku klasifikaciju. Taj potez bio je odgovor na prijetnju bojkota popisa Rakhine budista.U tom se procesu vlada obvezala na svoju raniju obvezu da će se pridržavati međunarodnih popisnih standarda.
As with the rest of Myanmar’s postindependence borderlands that were historically multiethnic and politically fluid, Rakhine state had also suffered from decades of centre-periphery imbalances. On the one hand, Buddhist Rakhines had long felt oppressed by the Burmans, the country’s largest ethnic group, and on the other hand, they perceived the Muslim population to be a palpable threat to their cultural identity. Within the Myanmar context, race and ethnicity were rigid constructs that determined legal, political, and social relations. The debate surrounding the Rohingya terminology had, as such, paralyzed meaningful government recognition of the predicament of the Rohingya community.
Statelessness.
Almost all Rohingya in Myanmar were stateless. They were unable to obtain “citizenship by birth” in Myanmar because the 1982 Citizenship Law did not include the Rohingya on the list of 135 recognized national ethnic groups. The law had historically been arbitrarily applied in relation to those, such as the Rohingya, who did not fall strictly within the list of recognized ethnic nationalities. The legal status of a large majority of Rohingya was rendered even more precarious when Pres. Thein Sein unexpectedly announced in February 2015 the expiry of “white cards,” a form of temporary identity documentation held by many within the Rohingya community.
Intercommunal Violence and Displacement.
Two waves of intercommunal violence between Buddhist and Muslim communities in Rakhine state in June and October 2012 led to the displacement of approximately 140,000 people—the large majority of whom were Rohingya—to camps around the state capital (Sittwe) and surrounding townships. According to government figures, the conflicts resulted in 192 deaths, 265 injuries, and the destruction of 8,614 homes, with the impact disproportionately borne by Muslim communities. Human Rights Watch, as well as other nongovernmental organizations, claimed that the October 2012 violence was a coordinated campaign targeting the Rohingya.
Legislative Restrictions.
Following the 2012 violence, other developments, including a series of proposed legislative measures (some of which were passed by Myanmar’s parliament), resulted in further restrictions on the limited rights of the Rohingya. Although those developments had a nationwide application, they were understood to affect mostly the Rohingya community.
In September 2014 an amendment to the 2010 Political Parties Registration Law came into force; the legislation effectively disallowed the Rohingya to form and be members of political parties. Less than six months later, the Constitutional Tribunal delivered an opinion that prevented noncitizens from voting in any national referendum. The legal implication of the decision, formalized in June 2015 with amendments to the election laws, was that Rohingya, who were considered noncitizens, would not be allowed to vote in the 2015 general elections, even if they had cast their ballots during the 1960, 1990, and 2010 elections. The development also represented a final and absolute curtailment of the political rights of the Rohingya.
In November 2014 a package of draft laws popularly termed “laws on safeguarding race and religion” was submitted in the parliament for debate. The bills, which were initially proposed in 2013, were to an extent premised on anxieties over Myanmar’s being surrounded by highly populated countries, a factor that was believed to potentially affect the country’s demographics; on fears that Buddhist women were being coerced or tricked into marriages by and with non-Buddhist men; and on stereotypical views that Muslim families were polygamous and that consequently many children were being born. The bills were conceived as a necessary measure to protect Buddhist women and to address the perceived high population growth rate in Rakhine state.
Between May and July 2015, two of the four bills that permitted the state to regulate birth spacing and family planning, as well as to police the practice of religion within multireligious families, were passed by the parliament. The Population Control Healthcare Bill, which was aimed at Muslim women, could potentially be used to force women to space their births at least three years apart.
